3.5.15 Empathy and theory of mind

Empathy and Theory of Mind Including in Autism and Dissocial Behaviour

Empathy:

Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others. Observing another person operates on an item causes brain activity much beyond the observer’s visual cortex in regions directly engaged in planning and performing actions. This has been described as ‘action simulation’, which is particularly high in imaging studies of people who report being empathetic.

Simulation processes are active at an early stage of social development and may be impaired in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). However, the outcomes of ASD research to date have been mixed, with an equal number of studies reporting mixed findings.

Mirror neurons are a type of neuron that are believed to play a role in empathy and social understanding. These neurons are activated when an individual observes another person performing an action, as well as when the individual performs the action themselves. This allows individuals to “mirror” or understand the actions and intentions of others.

Mirror neurons were first discovered in the 1990s in monkeys, and their existence in humans has been inferred from brain imaging studies. While the exact role of mirror neurons in empathy and social understanding is still being debated, it is thought that they may play a role in helping individuals to understand the intentions and emotions of others, and to respond appropriately (Rizzolatti, 2004).

Theory of mind:

Theory of mind (ToM) is the ability to understand that other people have their own thoughts, feelings, and beliefs and that these may be different from one’s own. Knowing and comprehending the mental processes of people allows us to predict their conduct based on their beliefs and desires (Premack, 1978). A critical milestone in ToM development is gaining the ability to attribute false beliefs: that is, to recognize that others can have beliefs about the world that are different (Zeng, 2020).

Several regions of the brain, including the medial prefrontal cortex, bilateral temporoparietal junction, and precuneus (a portion of the superior parietal lobe), have been repeatedly observed to be engaged in healthy persons through diverse mentalizing activities (Green, 2015).

Autism Spectrum Disorder:

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by difficulties with social communication and interactions, as well as repetitive behaviours and interests. People with ASD may have difficulty understanding and responding to the emotions and perspectives of others, which can impact their ability to engage in empathic behaviour.

Individuals with ASD may have differences in the brain regions and neural circuits that are involved in empathy and theory of mind, such as the amygdala, prefrontal cortex and temporoparietal junction. These differences may contribute to the social and emotional difficulties that are often experienced by individuals with ASD. Functional magnetic resonance imaging studies have identified differences in the way that the brains of individuals with ASD respond to stimuli and process information. Individuals with ASD may have abnormal patterns of brain activity in response to social stimuli, such as faces and voices (O’Laughlin, 2000).

However, it is important to note that empathy is a complex trait that is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Therefore, the relationship between ASD and empathy is likely to be complex and multifaceted.

Dissocial behaviour:

Dissocial behaviour refers to behaviour that is harmful to others or society as a whole. It can include a wide range of behaviours, such as aggression, theft, and substance abuse.

There may be a relationship between empathy and dissocial behaviour. On the one hand, individuals who are high in empathy may be less likely to engage in dissocial behaviour, as they are more able to understand the perspective and emotions of others, and maybe more motivated to avoid harming others. On the other hand, individuals who are low in empathy may be more likely to engage in dissocial behaviour, as they may have difficulty understanding the perspective and emotions of others and may be more prone to impulsive and aggressive behaviour

Brain imaging studies and other research methods suggest that certain brain regions, such as the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and insula, may be involved in moral reasoning and the regulation of antisocial behaviour (Raine, 2006).

References:

(1) Green, M. F., Horan, W. P., and Lee, J. (2015). Social cognition in schizophrenia. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 16, 620–631. doi: 10.1038/nrn4005

(2) O’Laughlin, C., and Thagard, P. (2000). Autism and coherence: a computational model. Mind Lang. 15, 375–392. doi: 10.1111/1468-0017.00140

(3) Premack, D., and Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behav. Brain Sci. 1, 515–526. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X00076512

(4) Raine, A., & Yang, Y. (2006). Neural foundations to moral reasoning and antisocial behavior. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 1(3), 203-213.

(5) Rizzolatti G., Craighero L. The mirror-neuron system. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2004;27:169–192.

(6) Zeng, Y., Zhao, Y., Zhang, T., Zhao, D., Zhao, F. and Lu, E. (2020). A Brain-Inspired Model of Theory of Mind. Frontiers in Neurorobotics, 14. doi:10.3389/fnbot.2020.00060.