3.4.3 Temporal lobe, hippocampus, amygdala and epilepsy

The Internal Anatomy and Function of the Temporal Lobes, Hippocampal Formation and Amygdala, Neurogenesis and its Possible Role in Mental Health

Temporal lobes:

The temporal lobes are a pair of brain structures located on the sides of the brain, just above the ears. They are involved in a variety of functions, including hearing, memory, and emotion.

The temporal lobes are divided into several subregions, each with its own unique functions. The primary auditory cortex, located in the superior temporal gyrus, is responsible for processing sound information. The hippocampus, located in the medial temporal lobe, is critical for the formation of new memories and the consolidation of short-term memories into long-term memories (Squire & Zola-Morgan, 1991). The amygdala, also located in the medial temporal lobe, is involved in the processing of emotional information and the regulation of emotional responses (LeDoux, 1996).

In addition to these specific functions, the temporal lobes are also involved in language processing and the integration of sensory information from other parts of the brain (Damasio, 1989). Damage to the temporal lobes can lead to a variety of deficits, including hearing loss, memory impairments, and changes in emotional behaviour (Gainotti, 2002).

The temporal lobes also play a role in the perception and interpretation of visual stimuli. In a study using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), researchers found that the temporal lobes are activated during the perception of complex visual stimuli, such as faces and scenes (Kanwisher, McDermott, & Chun, 1997). Another study using fMRI found that the temporal lobes are involved in the perception of motion and the integration of visual and auditory information (Beauchamp, Lee, Haxby, & Martin, 2002).

Hippocampal formation:

The hippocampus is a brain structure located in the medial temporal lobe and is critical for the formation of new memories and the consolidation of short-term memories into long-term memories (Squire & Zola-Morgan, 1991). It is also involved in spatial navigation and the regulation of emotion (Fanselow & Dong, 2010).

The hippocampus is composed of several subregions, each with its own unique functions:

Hippocampal subregion:	Summary:
Dentate gyrus	The dentate gyrus is involved in the formation of new memories (Kesner, 2013).
Subicular	The subiculum is involved in the consolidation of spatial memories and the integration of sensory information (O’Keefe & Nadel, 1978).
Entorhinal cortex	The entorhinal cortex develops an interface for the hippocampus, it receives information from the neocortex and sends it back toward the hippocampus. The hippocampal formation is involved in linking short-term memory with long-term memory. Damage to this area can cause memory dysfunctioning. (Tamminga, 2010)

The hippocampus is also highly plastic, meaning that it is capable of changing and adapting in response to new experiences (Gage, 2002). This plasticity is thought to be mediated by a process called neurogenesis, in which new neurons are generated and integrated into the existing neural network (Eriksson et al., 1998).

Several studies have examined the role of the hippocampus in memory formation and consolidation. In a study using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), researchers found that the hippocampus is activated during the encoding and consolidation of new memories (Paller et al., 2000). Another study using fMRI found that the hippocampus is involved in the retrieval of long-term memories (Eldridge et al., 2005).

Overall, the hippocampus is a complex brain structure with a variety of functions, including memory formation and consolidation, spatial navigation, and the regulation

Amygdala:

The amygdala is a brain structure located in the medial temporal lobe and is involved in the processing of emotional information and the regulation of emotional responses (LeDoux, 1996). It is also involved in memory consolidation, particularly for emotionally-charged events (McGaugh, 2004).

The amygdala is composed of several subregions, each with its own unique functions. The basal nucleus is involved in the processing of sensory information, while the lateral nucleus is involved in the initiation of emotional responses (Phelps & LeDoux, 2005). The central nucleus is involved in the regulation of autonomic and endocrine responses to emotional stimuli (Davis & Whalen, 2001).

Several studies have examined the role of the amygdala in emotion and memory. In a study using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), researchers found that the amygdala is activated in response to fearful faces and threatening stimuli (Kim et al., 2003). Another study using fMRI found that the amygdala is involved in the consolidation of memories for emotionally-charged events (Lazarus et al., 2007).

Overall, the amygdala is a complex brain structure with a variety of functions, including the processing of emotional information and the regulation of emotional responses. It is also involved in memory consolidation, particularly for emotionally-charged events.

Neurogenesis:

Neurogenesis is the process by which new neurons are generated and integrated into the existing neural network (Eriksson et al., 1998). It occurs primarily in two brain regions: the hippocampus and the olfactory bulb (Gage, 2002).

The role of neurogenesis in mental health is an active area of research, and several studies have suggested that neurogenesis may be involved in the pathophysiology of certain mental health conditions. For example, a reduction in neurogenesis has been observed in animal models of depression and chronic stress (Gould et al., 1997), and an increase in neurogenesis has been observed following treatment with antidepressants and stress-reducing interventions such as exercise (Gomez-Pinilla & Hillman, 2013).

In humans, several studies have examined the relationship between neurogenesis and mental health. A study using positron emission tomography (PET) found that individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD) had reduced levels of neurogenesis in the hippocampus compared to healthy controls (Czech et al., 2016). Another study using PET found that individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) had reduced levels of neurogenesis in the hippocampus compared to healthy controls (Bremner et al., 2008).

Overall, the evidence suggests that neurogenesis may play a role in the pathophysiology of certain mental health conditions and that interventions that promote neurogenesis may have therapeutic potential. However, more research is needed to fully understand the relationship between neurogenesis and mental health.

Temporal Lobe Epilepsy

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures that originate in the temporal lobes of the brain. TLE is the most common type of epilepsy, accounting for approximately 60% of all epilepsy cases (Bartolomei et al., 2018).

The temporal lobes are involved in a variety of functions, including auditory processing, language, and emotion (Brodmann, 1909). As a result, TLE is often associated with a range of psychiatric symptoms, including mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and psychotic disorders (Blumer & Benson, 1975).

Several studies have examined the relationship between TLE and psychiatric disorders. A review of the literature found that individuals with TLE have a higher prevalence of psychiatric disorders compared to the general population, with rates of depression, anxiety, and psychosis being particularly elevated (Blumer & Benson, 1975). Another study found that individuals with TLE have a higher prevalence of suicide compared to the general population (Fiest et al., 2014).

The mechanisms underlying the association between TLE and psychiatric disorders are not fully understood. It is thought that the seizures themselves, as well as the underlying brain abnormalities that cause the seizures, may contribute to the development of psychiatric symptoms (Bartolomei et al., 2018).

Overall, the evidence suggests that TLE is associated with an increased risk of psychiatric disorders and that individuals with TLE may benefit from psychiatric treatment in addition to antiepileptic medication.

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