2.1.3 Attachment theory

Bowlby Attachment Theory and its Relevance to Emotional Development, Affect Regulation and Human Relationships in Childhood and Adulthood

Attachment theory is a psychological theory of human development that was first proposed by John Bowlby in the 1950s. The theory describes how infants form emotional and physical bonds with their caregivers, and how these bonds influence the child’s development throughout their life (Bowlby, 1969).

According to Bowlby’s theory, infants are born with an innate drive to form attachments with others, and they use their caregivers as a “secure base” from which to explore the world. Bowlby argued that the quality of the attachment relationship between the infant and the caregiver has a significant impact on the child’s development. He proposed that children who form secure attachments with their caregivers are more likely to develop into well-adjusted individuals, while children who form insecure attachments may have difficulty forming healthy relationships and may be at risk for emotional and behavioural problems.

Bowlby’s theory also describes how children learn to use their attachment figures as a “mental representation” or “internal working model” of relationships. This model is used as a guide for how the child perceives and expects to be treated by others. Bowlby’s theory suggests that this internal working model is shaped by the experiences of the child in the early years and has a profound impact on the child’s social and emotional development throughout life.

Bowlby’s theory has been widely studied and supported by research. Studies have found that children who form secure attachments with their caregivers tend to have better outcomes in terms of their emotional and behavioural development. Researchers have also found that the quality of attachment can be measured and that interventions can be developed to help parents and caregivers create a more secure attachment with their children (Ainsworth, 1978).

Emotional development:

John Bowlby’s attachment theory is highly relevant to emotional development as it emphasizes the importance of early relationships in shaping the child’s emotional experiences and behaviours. According to the theory, the quality of the attachment relationship between the child and the primary caregiver plays a crucial role in the child’s emotional development.

Bowlby proposed that infants have an innate drive to form attachments with others and that the attachment relationship serves as a foundation for the child’s emotional well-being. A secure attachment relationship with a caregiver provides the child with a sense of safety and security, which in turn allows the child to explore and learn about the world with confidence. On the other hand, an insecure attachment relationship can lead to feelings of anxiety and insecurity, which can interfere with the child’s emotional development.

Bowlby’s theory also suggests that the internal working model of relationships, which is formed in the early years, has a profound impact on the child’s emotional development throughout life. Children with a secure attachment history tend to have a more positive internal working model, which is characterized by trust and security in relationships. They are more likely to form healthy relationships, have better emotional regulation, and be less prone to anxiety and depression. On the other hand, children with an insecure attachment history tend to have a more negative internal working model, characterized by mistrust and insecurity in relationships. They are more likely to have difficulties in forming healthy relationships and may be at risk for emotional and behavioural problems.

Attachment theory has been supported by research in various fields, including developmental psychology, neuroscience, and psychiatry. Studies have found that the quality of the attachment relationship is related to the child’s emotional development and that interventions can be developed to help parents and caregivers create a more secure attachment with their children, which in turn can promote the child’s emotional well-being (Cassidy, 2008).

Affect regulation:

Bowlby’s attachment theory is also highly relevant to affect regulation, which refers to the process by which individuals manage their emotional states. According to the theory, the attachment relationship plays a crucial role in the development of affect regulation.

Bowlby proposed that the attachment figure serves as a “secure base” from which the child can explore the world and regulate their emotions. A secure attachment relationship provides the child with a sense of safety and security, which allows the child to regulate their emotions more effectively. For example, a child with a secure attachment to their caregiver may be better able to calm down after becoming upset or may be less likely to experience intense or prolonged emotional reactions.

On the other hand, an insecure attachment relationship can interfere with the child’s ability to regulate their emotions. Children with insecure attachments may have difficulty managing their emotions and may be more prone to emotional outbursts or withdrawal. They may also have difficulty with self-soothing and might rely on external sources such as drugs or alcohol to regulate their emotions.

Research has supported the link between attachment and affect regulation. Studies have found that children with a secure attachment history tend to have better emotional regulation, while children with an insecure attachment history tend to have more difficulty with affect regulation. Additionally, interventions that aim to promote secure attachment, such as parent-child interaction therapy, have been shown to improve affect regulation in children.

In summary, Bowlby’s attachment theory emphasizes the importance of early relationships in shaping the child’s emotional experiences and behaviours, and it highlights the role of attachment in the development of affect regulation (Fonagy, 1997).

Human relationships in childhood and adulthood:

Human relationships play a critical role in both childhood and adulthood. During childhood, relationships with parents, family members, and peers provide the foundation for social and emotional development. These early relationships shape an individual’s understanding of themselves, others and the world around them, and they also set the stage for future relationships.

In childhood, parent-child relationships are particularly important for the development of a secure attachment. Secure attachment is characterized by a sense of safety and trust in the relationship, and it is associated with better emotional regulation and social skills. Children with a secure attachment to their parents are more likely to have positive self-esteem, be less prone to anxiety and depression, and have better relationships with their peers.

Peer relationships also play a key role in childhood development. Children learn important social skills such as cooperation, communication, and empathy through interactions with their peers. They also learn how to navigate social hierarchies and develop a sense of belonging and self-worth.

In adulthood, relationships continue to play a critical role in shaping individuals’ emotional well-being and overall quality of life. Adult relationships include romantic partnerships, friendships, and professional relationships. These relationships provide support, companionship, and a sense of belonging. They also provide opportunities for personal growth and self-discovery.

Research has found that individuals with strong, supportive relationships in adulthood are more likely to have better physical and mental health, and a higher overall quality of life. On the other hand, individuals with poor quality or lacking relationships are more likely to experience emotional and physical health problems.

Overall, relationships are a fundamental aspect of human development, and they play a critical role in shaping both childhood and adulthood experiences.

Mary Ainsworth’s Attachment Theory and the Strange Situation Experiment

Mary Ainsworth’s attachment theory is a psychological theory of human development that builds on the work of John Bowlby. Ainsworth’s theory focuses on the nature of the attachment relationship between infants and their primary caregivers, and how this relationship influences the child’s development.

Ainsworth proposed that the attachment relationship is characterized by four distinct patterns: secure attachment, avoidant attachment, ambivalent attachment and disorganized attachment:

Ainsworth’s theory also includes the “Strange Situation” procedure, which is a laboratory-based assessment that is used to measure the quality of the attachment relationship. The procedure involves placing the child in a series of separation and reunion episodes with the caregiver and observing the child’s response to separation and reunion. The child’s behaviour during these episodes, such as their level of distress upon separation, the way they greet the caregiver upon reunion, and their level of comfort and exploration while the caregiver is present, is used to infer the quality of the attachment relationship.

The “Strange Situation” procedure, developed by Mary Ainsworth, is a laboratory-based assessment that is used to measure the quality of the attachment relationship between an infant and their primary caregiver. The procedure involves the following eight steps:

The infant’s behaviour during these episodes, such as their level of distress upon separation, the way they greet the caregiver upon reunion, and their level of comfort and exploration while the caregiver is present, is used to infer the quality of the attachment relationship. It is important to note that the Strange Situation is a standardized procedure and the length of time for each step may vary depending on the study and the child’s behaviour. Also, the procedure is typically only done once with each child and caregiver, and the results are used to classify the child’s attachment style into one of the three categories described by Ainsworth: secure, avoidant, ambivalent or disorganized.

It’s also worth mentioning that the strange situation procedure is widely used to assess attachment in young infants and has been found to be a valid measure of attachment, however, it may not be suitable for assessing attachment in older children or adults, as attachment styles and behaviours can change over time.

Additionally, it’s important to keep in mind that the Strange Situation is only one measure of attachment and it may not capture the complexity of the attachment relationship. Therefore, it’s important to consider other measures, such as observation of parent-child interactions in naturalistic settings, parent-report measures and interview of the child when assessing attachment.

Ainsworth’s theory has been widely studied and supported by research. Studies have found that the quality of the attachment relationship is related to the child’s emotional and social development and that interventions can be developed to help parents and caregivers create a more secure attachment with their children, which in turn can promote the child’s well-being.

Ainsworth’s attachment theory has also been expanded upon by other researchers, such as Mary Main, who developed the concept of “dismissing-avoidant” and “preoccupied-resistant” attachment styles in addition to Ainsworth’s original three styles (Main, 1990).

Overall, Ainsworth’s attachment theory has been a significant contribution to the field of developmental psychology, and it has provided an important framework for understanding the role of early relationships in shaping a child’s social and emotional development (Ainsworth, 1978).

Conditions for secure attachment:

According to attachment theory, a secure attachment is characterized by a positive and trusting relationship between the child and the caregiver. In order for a child to develop a secure attachment, certain conditions need to be met:

Sensitivity: The caregiver needs to be sensitive to the child’s needs and respond appropriately to their signals. This includes responding quickly to the child’s cries and providing comfort when the child is upset.
Consistency: The caregiver needs to provide consistent and reliable care for the child. This includes being available to the child when they need comfort and providing a sense of security and predictability.
Emotional availability: The caregiver needs to be emotionally available to the child, meaning they are able to understand and respond to the child’s emotional needs. They are able to empathize with the child and provide emotional support when needed.
Positive interactions: The caregiver needs to provide positive interactions with the child, such as play, affection, and verbal communication. This helps the child to feel valued and loved.
Supportive environment: The child needs to be in a supportive environment that promotes their well-being and development. This includes having access to appropriate nutrition, health care, and educational opportunities.

It’s important to note that these conditions aren’t mutually exclusive and the attachment relationship is dynamic and constantly changing, so the conditions

Types and clinical relevance of insecure and disorganised attachment:

In attachment theory, insecure attachment is characterized by a negative or inconsistent relationship between the child and the caregiver. There are several types of insecure attachment, including:

Avoidant attachment: characterized by a lack of trust in the caregiver, and the child may seem emotionally distant. Children with avoidant attachment tend to avoid or ignore the caregiver and may not seek comfort when upset.
Ambivalent/Resistant attachment: characterized by an inconsistent relationship between the child and the caregiver. The child may be clingy and overly dependent on the caregiver, but may also be resistant to the caregiver’s comfort.
Disorganized/disoriented attachment: characterized by a lack of a coherent strategy for coping with separation and reunion with the caregiver. Children with a disorganized attachment may display contradictory behaviours, such as approaching and avoiding the caregiver at the same time, or showing signs of confusion or fear when the caregiver returns.

Insecure and disorganized attachment styles have been linked to a range of emotional and behavioural problems in children and adults. Children with insecure attachments tend to have difficulty regulating their emotions and may be more prone to emotional outbursts or withdrawal. They may also have difficulty with self-soothing and might rely on external sources such as drugs or alcohol to regulate their emotions.

Adults with insecure or disorganized attachment styles may have difficulty forming and maintaining healthy relationships, they may also experience difficulties with emotional regulation and may be at risk for mental health problems such as anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (Ainsworth, 1978).

In terms of clinical relevance, identifying insecure and disorganized attachment styles can help professionals such as therapists, social workers, and paediatricians to develop appropriate interventions for children and families. These interventions may include parent-child interaction therapy, which aims to improve the quality of the attachment relationship, and therapy for the child to help with emotional regulation and social skills.

Early Separation and its Consequences

Early separation, such as when a child is separated from their primary caregiver, can have a significant impact on the child’s development and well-being. Research has shown that early separation can lead to a variety of negative consequences, including:

Attachment disruptions: Early separation can disrupt the attachment relationship between the child and their primary caregiver, leading to difficulties in forming secure attachments with others in the future.
Emotional and behavioural problems: Children who experience early separation may have difficulty regulating their emotions and may be more prone to emotional outbursts or withdrawal. They may also have difficulty with self-soothing and might rely on external sources such as drugs or alcohol to regulate their emotions.
Developmental delays: Early separation can lead to developmental delays in areas such as language, cognitive, and social development.
Increased risk for mental health problems: Children who experience early separation may be at an increased risk for mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Negative impact on the caregiver: Early separation can also have a negative impact on the caregiver, particularly if the caregiver is not able to provide consistent and reliable care for the child in the future.

It’s important to keep in mind that each child’s experience with early separation is unique, and the severity and duration of the separation will also play a role in the outcome. Also, early separation can be a result of different situations such as adoption, foster care, institutional care, or parental incarceration. The child’s age, temperament, and pre-existing emotional and developmental conditions may also affect how they cope with separation. Additionally, the quality of care and support that the child receives following the separation can also play a role in mitigating the negative consequences.

It is also important to note that interventions such as providing a stable and nurturing environment, therapeutic support, and maintaining contact with the primary caregiver (if possible) can help to mitigate the negative effects of early separation.

In summary, early separation can have a significant impact on a child’s emotional, behavioural, and developmental well-being, and it is important to provide support and interventions to mitigate these negative consequences (Bowlby, 1988) (Lieberman, 2005).

Consequences of Failure to Develop Selective Attachments

Failure to develop selective attachments, or the ability to form healthy, secure attachments with specific individuals, can have a number of negative consequences. These consequences can include:

Emotional difficulties: Children who have difficulty forming selective attachments may have trouble regulating their emotions and may be more prone to emotional outbursts or withdrawal. They may also have difficulty with self-soothing and may rely on external sources such as drugs or alcohol to regulate their emotions.
Social difficulties: Children who have difficulty forming selective attachments may have difficulty forming and maintaining healthy relationships with others. They may also have difficulty understanding and navigating social cues and may struggle with social interactions.
Developmental delays: Failure to develop selective attachments can lead to developmental delays in areas such as language, cognitive, and social development.
Increased risk for mental health problems: Children who have difficulty forming selective attachments may be at an increased risk for mental health problems such as anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Difficulty adapting to new environments: Children who have difficulty forming selective attachments may struggle to adapt to new environments, such as starting school or moving to a new home.

It’s important to note that selective attachment can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as the child’s temperament, family dynamics, and exposure to adverse experiences. Therefore, early identification and interventions can help to mitigate the negative consequences of failure to develop selective attachments (Lieberman, 2005).

Brief Consideration of Attachment, Maternal ‘Bonding’ and Parental Sensitivity

Attachment, maternal bonding, and parental sensitivity are all related concepts in the field of child development and parenting.

Attachment refers to the emotional bond that forms between a child and their primary caregiver. This bond is thought to be important for the child’s emotional and social development, as well as their overall well-being.

Maternal bonding refers to the emotional connection that develops between a mother and her child, particularly during the early weeks and months after birth. This bonding process is thought to be crucial for the development of a secure attachment between the mother and child.

Parental sensitivity refers to the ability of a parent or caregiver to understand and respond appropriately to the child’s signals and needs. Parents who are sensitive to their child’s needs are more likely to provide the child with the consistent and responsive care that is needed for a secure attachment to form.

Research has found that the quality of the attachment relationship, maternal bonding and parental sensitivity are all related to the child’s emotional and social development. Parents who are able to form a secure attachment, bond well with their child, and are sensitive to their child’s needs are more likely to raise children who are emotionally and socially well-adjusted. Conversely, problems in any of these areas can contribute to difficulties in the child’s development.

In summary, attachment, maternal bonding and parental sensitivity are all important concepts in the field of child development and parenting, and they are closely related to the child’s emotional and social development (Felders, 2010).

References:

(1) Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

(2) Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. London: Hogarth Press.

(3) Bowlby, J. (1988). A Secure Base: Parent-Child Attachment and Healthy Human Development. London: Routledge.

(4) Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (2008). Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications. New York: Guilford Press.

(5) Felders, P., van den Berg, G. P., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2010). The role of parental sensitivity in the development of attachment. Attachment & Human Development, 12(4), 359–371.

(6) Fonagy, P., & Target, M. (1997). Attachment and Reflective Function: Their Role in Self-Organization. Development and Psychopathology, 9(4), 679–700.

(7) Lieberman, A. F., Van Horn, P., & Ippen, C. G. (2005). The effects of early separation on child and adolescent development. Journal of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychotherapy, 4(1), 5–25.

(8) Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1990). Procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation. In M. T. Greenberg,