2.1.16 Normal ageing

Normal Ageing and its Impact on Physical, Social, Cognitive and Emotional Aspects of Individual Functioning

Normal ageing is a complex process that affects various aspects of an individual’s functioning, including physical, social, cognitive, and emotional well-being (Levy, 2002).

Physical changes associated with normal ageing include a decline in muscle mass and strength, decreased cardiovascular and respiratory function, and a decrease in sensory abilities, such as vision and hearing. These changes may lead to an increased risk of falls and injuries, as well as increased vulnerability to chronic diseases such as heart disease, stroke, and diabetes. The decline in muscle mass and strength is primarily due to the age-related decrease in the levels of hormones that regulate muscle growth and maintenance, specifically testosterone in men and estrogen in women. This decline in muscle mass and strength make older adults more susceptible to falls and injuries, which can lead to a decline in physical function, independence, and overall quality of life. Additionally, the decrease in cardiovascular and respiratory function may lead to decreased ability to engage in physical activity, which can further contribute to a decline in physical function and overall health. The decline in sensory abilities, such as vision and hearing, can lead to difficulty with activities of daily living and decreased participation in social and recreational activities (Fried, 2004).

Social changes associated with normal ageing include a decline in social support networks, increased isolation and loneliness, and a decline in participation in community activities. These changes may lead to a decline in overall quality of life and an increased risk of depression and other mental health issues. The decline in social support networks may be due to the loss of family members and friends, as well as changes in living arrangements, such as moving to a retirement community or assisted living facility. Social isolation and loneliness can have a significant impact on emotional well-being and can lead to depression and other mental health issues. In addition, the decline in participation in community activities can also lead to a decline in overall quality of life, as older adults may no longer have access to the social, intellectual, and physical stimulation that these activities provide.

Cognitive changes associated with normal ageing include a decline in processing speed, working memory, and executive function. These changes may lead to difficulty with tasks such as planning, problem-solving, and decision-making. However, it is important to note that not all older adults experience cognitive decline, and some may even exhibit improvements in certain cognitive abilities such as knowledge and verbal abilities. Age-related cognitive decline is primarily due to the decline in neural plasticity, which refers to the brain’s ability to adapt and change in response to new information and experiences. This decline in neural plasticity can lead to a decline in cognitive function, which can affect daily activities, such as managing finances, remembering to take medications, and driving.

Emotional changes associated with normal ageing include increased vulnerability to stress, increased risk of depression, and an increased tendency towards negative affect. These changes may lead to a decline in overall well-being and quality of life. Age-related emotional changes can be due to a variety of factors, including physical changes, social changes, and cognitive changes. For example, the decline in physical function and increased risk of chronic diseases can lead to increased stress, which can affect emotional well-being. Additionally, the decline in social support networks and increased isolation can also lead to increased stress and emotional distress. Finally, the decline in cognitive function can lead to increased stress and frustration, which can also affect emotional well-being (Jeste, 2003).

It is important to note that normal ageing is a highly individualized process and that there is a wide range of variations in how people experience the ageing process. Additionally, normal ageing can be influenced by a variety of factors, including genetics, lifestyle, and overall health status.

In summary, normal ageing is a complex process that affects various aspects of an individual’s functioning. Physical changes, such as a decline in muscle mass and strength, decreased cardiovascular and respiratory function, and a decrease in sensory abilities, can lead to an increased risk of falls and injuries, as well as increased vulnerability to chronic diseases. Social changes, such as a decline in social support networks, increased isolation and loneliness

Social Changes Accompanying Old Age

Social changes accompanying old age can have a significant impact on an individual’s overall well-being and quality of life. Some of the most notable social changes that occur with ageing include:

Social factors of old age:	Summary:
A decline in social support networks	As people age, they may lose friends and family members due to death or distance. This can lead to a decline in social support networks and an increased risk of isolation and loneliness.
Decrease in participation in community activities	Older adults may also experience a decline in their participation in community activities, such as volunteering or joining clubs, due to physical limitations or a lack of transportation. This can lead to a decline in overall quality of life and a decrease in opportunities for social interaction.
Changes in living arrangements	Many older adults may choose to move to retirement communities or assisted living facilities, which can lead to a loss of independence and a decline in social connections.
Ageism and discrimination	Older adults may also experience ageism and discrimination, which can negatively impact their social relationships and overall well-being.
Changes in roles and identity	As people age, they may experience changes in their roles and identity. For example, older adults may retire from work, which can lead to a loss of purpose and a decline in self-esteem.

These social changes can have a significant impact on emotional well-being, mental health, and overall quality of life. It is important for older adults to have access to resources and support systems that can help them cope with these changes and maintain social connections (Cohen, 2018), (Isaacowitz, 2008).

Importance of loss:

Loss is a significant aspect of the ageing process and can have a significant impact on an individual’s emotional well-being and overall quality of life. Loss can take many forms, including the loss of friends and family members due to death, the loss of physical abilities, the loss of independence and autonomy, the loss of roles and identity, and the loss of social connections.

The loss of friends and family members can have a significant impact on emotional well-being and can lead to feelings of grief, isolation, and loneliness. This can be particularly challenging for older adults who may have limited social support networks.

The loss of physical abilities can also be a significant source of emotional distress for older adults. The decline in physical function can lead to a loss of independence and autonomy, which can affect self-esteem and overall quality of life.

The loss of roles and identity can also be a significant source of emotional distress for older adults. For example, older adults may experience a loss of purpose and self-worth when they retire from work or when they are no longer able to participate in activities that they previously enjoyed.

It is important to note that loss is a normal and natural part of the ageing process and that older adults can adapt to loss and continue to find meaning and fulfilment in life. Supportive interventions such as grief counselling, social support, and reminiscence therapy can be helpful in coping with loss. Additionally, interventions such as activities and programs that promote social engagement, physical activity, and cognitive stimulation can help older adults to maintain a sense of purpose and fulfilment in life (Schut, 2010).

Personality changes with ageing:

Personality is a complex and multifaceted construct that can change over the course of an individual’s lifetime, including during the ageing process. While some personality traits may remain relatively stable across the lifespan, other traits may change or be modified as a person ages (Roberts, 2000).

One of the key changes in personality that can occur with ageing is a shift towards increased emotional stability and a decrease in negative emotions such as anxiety and neuroticism. This shift is often referred to as the “maturity principle,” which suggests that as people age, they become more emotionally stable and better able to cope with stress and adversity. This shift towards emotional stability may be due to a combination of factors, including the accumulation of life experiences, the development of coping skills, and the decline in the levels of certain hormones that are associated with stress and negative emotion.

Another change in personality that can occur with ageing is a decline in cognitive abilities, such as memory and attention, which may lead to changes in personality. For example, older adults may experience difficulty with tasks that require working memory or executive function, which can affect their ability to plan, organize, and make decisions. These changes in cognitive abilities can also affect an older person’s ability to regulate their emotions, leading to increased emotional instability and negative affect.

Additionally, some researchers suggest that as people age, they may become more set in their ways and less open to new experiences, which is referred to as the “crystallization of personality”. This means that older adults may become more rigid and less open to change, which can affect their ability to adapt to new situations and may lead to a decline in overall well-being (Srivastava, 2003).

It is important to note that personality changes with ageing can vary widely among older adults and that some older adults may experience little or no change in their personalities. Furthermore, age-related changes in personality can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as genetics, lifestyle, and overall health status.

Social and Economic Factors in Old Age

Social and economic factors can have a significant impact on an individual’s well-being and quality of life in old age. Some of the key social and economic factors that affect older adults include:

Social and economic factors in old age:	Summary:
Attitude	Attitude is a social factor that can have a significant impact on an individual’s well-being and quality of life in old age. Older adults who have positive attitudes towards ageing tend to report higher levels of life satisfaction, better physical and mental health outcomes, and more resilience and adaptability in the face of life’s challenges. On the other hand, older adults who have negative attitudes towards ageing may experience more negative emotions, lower levels of life satisfaction, and a decline in overall well-being.
Status of the elderly	The status of the elderly in ageing is a complex issue that is influenced by a variety of factors, including social, economic, and cultural factors. In many societies, older adults are often seen as a burden on society and are marginalized and stigmatized, experiencing ageism and discrimination. On the other hand, in some societies older adults are respected and valued for their wisdom and experience. Economic factors such as income and financial security also play a role, as older adults with limited income and financial security may be at a higher risk of poverty and have limited access to resources and support systems. Cultural factors also have an influence, as different cultures may have different attitudes towards ageing and the role of the elderly in society. Overall, it is important for society to recognize the value and contributions of older adults and provide them with resources and support systems that can help them to maintain a high quality of life in old age.
Ageism and discrimination	Older adults may also experience ageism and discrimination, which can negatively impact their social relationships, access to goods and services, and overall well-being.
Retirement	A retirement is a significant event in the ageing process that can have a significant impact on an individual’s overall well-being and quality of life. It marks the end of formal working years and signals a transition to a new phase of life. Retirement can have positive effects, such as increased leisure time, reduced stress, and improved physical and mental health, but it can also have negative effects, such as a loss of identity, a decrease in social connections, and a decline in overall well-being. The effects of retirement can vary widely among older adults and factors such as an individual’s health, financial security, social support, and life satisfaction can all play a role in determining how well older adults adjust to retirement. Additionally, in recent years, many older adults have been choosing to delay retirement or continue working in a reduced capacity, which can have positive effects on well-being.
Income	Financial security is a critical factor for older adults, as they may have limited opportunities to increase their income and may rely heavily on their savings and investments. Limited income can lead to a decline in overall quality of life and an increased risk of poverty.
Accommodation	Adequate and affordable housing is essential for older adults, as it provides a safe and secure environment in which to live. However, older adults may face challenges such as difficulty with home maintenance, lack of accessibility, and high housing costs.
Socio-cultural differences	Socio-cultural differences in ageing refer to the variations in ageing experiences, attitudes, and expectations among different cultural groups. These differences can include variations in health behaviours and outcomes, attitudes towards ageing, and social and familial roles and responsibilities. For example, some cultures may place a greater emphasis on intergenerational relationships and family caregiving, while others may have more formal support systems for older adults. Additionally, cultural beliefs and stereotypes about ageing can also affect the way older adults are perceived and treated by society. Furthermore, some cultures may have more positive attitudes towards ageing and view it as a natural and respected part of life, while others may view ageing as a negative and undesirable process.
Healthcare	Access to quality health care is essential for older adults, as they are more likely to have chronic health conditions and may require more frequent medical attention. However, older adults may face challenges such as limited access to healthcare services, high costs of care, and a lack of long-term care options.

These social and economic factors can interact and exacerbate each other, creating a cycle of vulnerability that can affect an older person’s overall well-being and quality of life. It is important for older adults to have access to resources and support systems that can help them to cope with these challenges and maintain a high quality of life.

References:

(1) Cohen, G. D. (2018). Social factors in aging. In Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (8th ed., pp. 401-420). Elsevier.

(2) Fried, L. P., Carlson, M. C., Freedman, M., Frick, K. D., Glass, T. A., Hill, J., … & Walston, J. (2004). Frailty in older adults: Evidence for a phenotype. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 59(3), M356-M362.

(3) Isaacowitz, D. M., Toner, J., Goren, D., & Wilson, H. R. (2008). Age differences in attention to positive and negative information in natural scenes: An eye-tracking study. Psychology and aging, 23(1), 34-43.

(4) Jeste, D. V., & Blazer, D. G. (2003). Psychiatric aspects of late life. In Hazzard’s Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology (5th ed., pp. 879-907). New York: McGraw-Hill.

(5) Levy, B.R., Slade, M.D., Kunkel, S.R. and Kasl, S.V. (2002). Longevity increased by positive self-perceptions of aging. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(2), pp.261–270. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.261.

(6) Roberts, B. W., & DelVecchio, W. F. (2000). The rank-order consistency of personality traits from childhood to old age: A quantitative review of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 126(1), 3.

(7) Scharlach, A. E. (2000). Economic insecurity and old age. The Gerontologist, 40(1), 8-19.

(8) Schut, H. A., & Stroebe, M. S. (2010). Coping with loss in later life. The Gerontologist, 50(2), 193-205.

(9) Walker, A., & Maltby, J. (2002). Ageism and its potential impact on the well-being of older people. Journal of social issues, 58(2), 333-349.