1.2.7 Altruism

Defining Altruism

The definition of altruism is “behaviour that benefits others at a personal cost to the behaving individual” (Kerr, et al., 2004), which “provides an understanding of social solidarity in modern societies” (Paraskevaidis & Andriotis, 2017) is generally accepted, however, there is marginal variance within the biological literature depending on how the cost and benefit of the behaviour within the scenario are assessed. Aristotle and the ancient Greeks recognised acts of helping others as desirable behaviour. Kant articulated that altruism can constitute a part of a universal moral law. Modern examples of this type of behaviour can be found in charity work, volunteering, and blood donation, among others.

In comparison to true altruism, reciprocal altruism exists in a “tit-for-tat” framework (where one individual benefits one day – and another the next) and is particularly prudent in small and stable dyads where repeated interactions are likely (Andreoni & Miller, 1993). This type of altruism is also commonplace where an individual can expect to exert personal cost today but receive reciprocal economic or reputational benefits in the future (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003).

Exocentric altruists act truly in another person’s interest, as opposed to endocentric altruists who act primarily to satisfy their own internal drives.

Émile Durkheim wrote about altruistic suicides occurring when the ‘needs of society transcend those of the individual’.

Psychological approaches to altruism:

There are several psychological approaches to understanding altruism, including evolutionary psychology, social psychology, and developmental psychology.

Evolutionary psychology suggests that altruism evolved as a way to increase inclusive fitness or the number of copies of one’s genes that are passed on to future generations. This theory suggests that altruistic behaviour towards close relatives can increase their survival, and therefore the survival of genes that are shared between them.

Social psychology focuses on the social factors that influence altruistic behaviour, such as social norms and the perception of others. Social psychologists have shown that people are more likely to engage in altruistic behaviour when they believe that their actions will be perceived positively by others, and when they believe that their actions will be aligned with social norms.

Developmental psychology studies how altruistic behaviour develops over the lifespan. Research has shown that altruistic behaviour emerges in early childhood and that it is influenced by factors such as socialization, moral development, and personality. For example, children who are taught to think about others and value empathy are more likely to engage in altruistic behaviour.

Overall, psychological approaches to altruism provide a rich and diverse understanding of this complex phenomenon. By examining the interplay between individual differences, social factors, and developmental processes, psychologists are able to provide a nuanced and nuanced understanding of the motivations and mechanisms underlying altruistic behaviour.

Cost-arousal model:

The cost-arousal model is a psychological theory that attempts to explain why individuals engage in altruistic behaviour. According to this model, altruistic behaviour is motivated by a cost-benefit analysis in which individuals weigh the costs of helping others against the benefits of feeling good about their actions.

According to the cost-arousal model, when people encounter someone in need, they experience arousal of negative emotions, such as sympathy or empathy. This arousal signals the need to engage in a cost-benefit analysis, in which they weigh the costs and benefits of helping the individual in need. If the benefits of helping are perceived to be greater than the costs, the individual is more likely to engage in altruistic behaviour.

The cost-arousal model also suggests that the degree of arousal experienced by an individual will influence their decision to help. For example, if an individual is highly aroused by the suffering of another person, they may be more likely to help, even if the costs are high. On the other hand, if an individual is less aroused, they may be less likely to help, even if the costs are low.

Overall, the cost-arousal model provides a useful framework for understanding why individuals engage in altruistic behaviour. By considering both the emotional response to need and the cost-benefit analysis, this model provides a more nuanced understanding of the complex motivations underlying altruistic behaviour.

Evolution, game theory and neuroscience:

Altruism is a complex phenomenon that has been studied from a variety of perspectives, including evolution, game theory, and neuroscience.

From an evolutionary perspective, altruism can be seen as a way for individuals to increase their inclusive fitness or the number of copies of their genes that are passed on to future generations. For example, altruistic behaviour towards close relatives, such as caring for siblings, can help increase the survival of these relatives, and therefore the survival of genes that are shared between them.

Game theory provides a mathematical framework for understanding how altruistic behaviour can emerge in a population. For example, in the prisoner’s dilemma game, two individuals are faced with a choice of whether to cooperate or defect. If both individuals cooperate, they both receive a positive outcome. However, if one individual defects and the other cooperates, the defector receives a higher reward and the cooperator receives a lower reward. This game illustrates how altruistic behaviour can be rational and self-interested, as cooperating can lead to a better outcome for both individuals.

Neuroscience has also provided insights into the mechanisms underlying altruistic behaviour. For example, imaging studies have shown that altruistic behaviour is associated with increased activity in brain regions involved in empathy and social cognition, such as the anterior cingulate cortex and the inferior parietal cortex. Additionally, research has shown that the hormone oxytocin, which is involved in social bonding, can increase altruistic behaviour in humans. Neuroscience has suggested that altruists may be more sensitive to distress. Other studies have drawn similarities between the reward pathways for material gratification and altruistic gratification.

Social Exchange Theory

Social Exchange Theory is a sociological theory that explains social behaviour in terms of the exchange of rewards and costs between individuals. According to this theory, individuals engage in social interactions with the expectation of receiving rewards and avoiding costs. The rewards and costs associated with a particular behaviour will influence whether the behaviour is repeated or not in the future. Social exchange theory argues that individuals make decisions about their behaviour based on their calculations of the rewards and costs associated with different actions. For example, if an individual perceives that the rewards of helping a friend are greater than the costs, they are more likely to engage in the behaviour. On the other hand, if the costs are perceived to be greater than the rewards, the individual is less likely to engage in the behaviour. Social exchange theory provides a framework for understanding how individuals make decisions about their behaviour in social situations and how they evaluate the outcomes of these decisions.

Social exchange theory can also be viewed as a conceptual paradigm for understanding social and organisational behaviour, bridging the disciplines of anthropology, psychology, and sociology (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). An example of reciprocal rather than true altruism, social exchange represents a culmination of interaction-generated obligations. These obligations take place alongside the generation of a relationship which over time and through reciprocation, develops to become extremely loyal and trusting.

Social exchange theory considers that people make decisions by consciously or unconsciously weighing the costs/benefits of relationships, with the rationale or goal of maximising their return.

Helping Relationships

Helping relationships can be an example of either true or reciprocal altruism, as they can be established within a familial (parents, siblings), personal (friends, charity work) or professional (nurses, psychiatrists) context. These relationships can improve life satisfaction alongside mental and physical wellbeing for the individual in receipt of help, in addition to reducing perceived levels of stress (Burke & Weir, 1978). For these benefits to be realised, empathy and an “ability to communicate an understanding of a client’s world” is crucial (Reynolds & Scott, 2002).

Interpersonal Cooperation

Interpersonal interaction and cooperation are fundamental facets of altruism, as one or more individuals must come together to waive reward or benefit, to achieve a common goal (Johnson, et al., 2021). Particularly within newly established groups, inner conflict is experienced at an individual level; is the risk worth it for short-term individual gain, or should they instead hold on for longer-term group benefits which may outweigh the former (Salem, et al., 2022). This phenomenon is typically researched using a combination of Cooperation Theory and Game Theory; in dyads, this includes social dilemmas such as ‘Prisoner’s Dilemma’, ‘Assurance’ and ‘Chicken’, with larger groups using the ‘Public Goods Dilemma’ or ‘Commons Dilemma’ (Kollock, 1998). Interestingly, in one-off scenarios with strangers (where there is no evidence of past behaviour or promise of future interactions), players typically demonstrate mutual non-cooperation (Macy & Skvoretz, 1998). However, in scenarios where a social exchange is permitted, individuals start off favouring group goals, with this tailing off as the game intensifies – to save themselves from being exploited by those with selfish motivations (Ostrom, 2000). As it is impossible to run these experiments with a single player, there is no way to rule out whether the primary cause for initial cooperation is due to altruistic motivations or social norms and mechanisms (Simpson & Willer, 2015).

References:

(1) Andreoni, J. & Miller, J., 1993. Rational cooperation in the finitely repeated prisoner’s dilemma: experimental evidence. The Economic Journal, Volume 103, pp. 570-585.

(2) Burke, R. J. & Weir, T., 1978. Benefits to adolescents of information helping relationships with their parents and peers. Psychological Reports, 42(3), pp. 1175-1184.

(3) Cropanzano, R. & Mitchell, M. S., 2005. Social exchange theory: an interdisciplinary review. Journal of Management, 31(6), pp. 874-900.

(4) Fehr, E. & Fischbacher, U., 2003. The nature of human altruism. Nature, Volume 425, pp. 785-791.

(5) Jerabeck, J. M. & Ferguson, C. J., 2013. The influence of solitary and cooperative violent video game play on aggressive and prosocial behavior. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(6), pp. 2573-2578.

(6) Johnson, M. J., Kim, K. H., Colarelli, S. M. & Boyajian, M., 2021. Coachability and the development of the coachability scale. Journal of Management, Volume 40, pp. 585-610.

(7) Kerr, B., Godfrey-Smith, P. & Feldman, M. W., 2004. What is altriusm?. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 19(3), pp. 135-140.

(8) Kollock, P., 1998. Social dilemmas: the anatomy of cooperation. Annual Review of Sociology, Volume 24, pp. 183-214.

(9) Macy, M. W. & Skvoretz, J., 1998. The evolution of trust and cooperation between strangers: A computational model. American Sociological Review, 63(5), pp. 638-660.

(10) Ostrom, E., 2000. Collective action and the evolution of social norms. Journal of Economic Perspectives, Volume 14, pp. 137-158.

(11) Paraskevaidis, P. & Andriotis, K., 2017. Altruism in tourism: Social Exchange Theory vs Altruistic Surplus Phenomenon in host volunteering. Annals of Tourism Research, Volume 62, pp. 26-37.

(12) Reynolds, W. J. & Scott, B., 2002. Empathy: a crucial component of the helping relationship. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 6(5), pp. 363-370.

(13) Salem, A. A. et al., 2022. Altruistic behaviors and cooperation among gifted adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, Volume 13.

(14) Simpson, B. & Willer, R., 2015. Beyond altruism: sociological foundations of cooperation and prosocial behavior. Annual Review of Sociology, Volume 41, pp. 43-63.