1.2.6 Aggression

Defining Aggression

Despite limited variances, a commonly accepted definition of aggression is “any behaviour enacted with the intention to harm another person, who is motivated to avoid that harm” (Warburton & Anderson, 2015). As this definition centres around the intent, it allows the term to incorporate all nuances of aggression.

• Reactive aggression: associated with the frustration-aggression theory. If someone feels threatened this results in anger and will drive them to react to and harm the source of that threat.
  • Reactive aggressive behaviour is impulsive with little to no consideration of the consequences.

• Proactive (instrumental) aggression: stems from the social learning model of aggression. Suggesting that aggression is an acquired behaviour. Aggressive acts are reinforced by rewards over time.
  • Proactive aggressive behaviour is premeditated with instrumental and reward-focused goals.

Explanation According to Social Learning Theory & Operant Conditioning

Social learning theory points to direct experience and observational learning as being solely responsible for the development of aggressive behaviours (Bandura, 2001). As we create expectations based on our experiences and mimic behaviour which has a rewarding outcome, individuals who witness violence and then see the perpetrators rewarded are more likely to re-enact these behaviours themselves (Orue, et al., 2011). As per the operant conditioning model, the opposite is also true in that visible opposition to aggressive behaviours by family, peers and bystanders can decrease the likelihood of perpetration (Orphinas, et al., 1999). Operant conditioning with positive reinforcement can lead to increased behaviours, in this case, aggression.

For example, if a child is given a treat when they have been aggressive they will associate that behaving in this manner is acceptable due to a positive association.

According to the social learning theory, people learn primarily through observation, imitation, and modelling.

Children demonstrated imitative behaviour when they observed aggressive behaviour being rewarded.

‘Bobo doll’ experiment:

The Bobo Doll Experiment is a classic study in social psychology that was conducted by psychologist Albert Bandura in the 1960s. The experiment aimed to examine the effects of observation and modelling on aggressive behaviour in children.

In the experiment, children were randomly assigned to one of three groups. In the first group, children observed an adult model act aggressively towards a Bobo Doll, an inflatable toy that would bounce back up when punched or hit. In the second group, children observed a non-aggressive adult model playing with toys. In the third group, children had no exposure to any adult model.

After observing the adult models, the children were then placed in a room with the Bobo Doll and other toys and were observed for their behaviour. The results showed that the children who observed the aggressive adult model were more likely to display aggressive behaviour towards the Bobo Doll compared to children in the other two groups.

The Bobo Doll Experiment provided evidence for the theory of social learning, which suggests that individuals can learn new behaviours by observing others. The experiment also showed that aggressive behaviour can be learned through observation and modelling and that the presence of a model who behaves aggressively can lead to an increase in aggressive behaviour in children.

The Bobo Doll Experiment has had a significant impact on the field of social psychology and has been widely cited in studies on aggression and social learning. It has also been used to inform theories of media violence and its effects on children.

Ethnology

There is no single cause or predictor for the manifestation of aggression, however, there are several personal, situational, environmental and biological factors which can result in an individual having a greater predisposition to aggressive behaviour including genetics (de Brouwer, et al., 2018), mental health (Wagels, et al., 2022), substance abuse (Laitano, et al., 2022) and acute hormone fluctuations (Denson, et al., 2018) among others. The General Aggression Model (Anderson & Bushman, 2002) (Allen, et al., 2018) is an all-inclusive framework for comprehending aggression. It looks at how social, cognitive, psychological, developmental, and biological factors influence aggression.

Frustration Theories

Frustration theories are a set of psychological theories that attempt to explain the causes and effects of frustration. Frustration is a common psychological experience that occurs when an individual’s goals or desires are blocked or thwarted.

There are several prominent frustration theories, including:

Theory:	Description:
Frustration-aggression hypothesis	Frustration can result in aggression when the source of that frustration cannot be challenged, the aggression is displaced onto an innocent target. The frustration-aggression hypothesis, initially penned in the late 1930s (Dollard, et al., 1939), defines frustration as “an unexpected blockage of an anticipated goal attainment” and theorises that each frustration or provocation endured leads to subsequent aggression unless the individual anticipates such behaviour bringing about a negative consequence or punishment.
Cue-arousal theory	The likelihood of aggression being expressed is increased if there are cues for aggression in place.
Relative deprivation theory	A feeling of social economic or political injustice can result in aggressive behaviour.
Excitation transfer theory	If two events occur in quick succession, arousal from the first event may be misattributed to the following event. Transfer of aggression.
Drive theory	According to this theory, frustration arises when an individual’s drive or motivation to achieve a goal is blocked. The drive theory suggests that frustration occurs when the organism’s needs and wants are not satisfied and that this unfulfilled drive leads to increased tension and frustration.
Equity theory	This theory suggests that frustration arises when an individual perceives that they are not being treated fairly in comparison to others. This can occur when an individual feels that they are putting in more effort than they are receiving in return, or when they believe that they are receiving less reward than they deserve.
Learned helplessness theory	According to this theory, frustration can lead to feelings of hopelessness and helplessness, which can result in passive behaviour. This occurs when an individual perceives that they have no control over the events or outcomes in their life, leading to a sense of powerlessness and frustration.
Attribution theory	This theory suggests that frustration can arise when individuals attribute their failure to internal, stable, and global causes, such as lack of ability, rather than to external, temporary, and specific causes, such as lack of effort. This attribution can lead to decreased motivation and increased frustration.

Frustration can have a range of effects on individuals, including decreased motivation, increased aggression, and decreased well-being. Understanding frustration theories can help individuals to better understand the causes and effects of frustration and to develop strategies for coping with frustration in a healthy and effective way.

Milgram’s experiment:

The Milgram experiments were a series of psychological studies conducted by Stanley Milgram in the 1960s to investigate obedience to authority. The experiments were designed to examine the extent to which people would obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform actions that were harmful to others.

In the experiments, participants were asked to administer electric shocks to a learner (who was actually a confederate of the experimenter) each time the learner made a mistake on a memory task. The shocks started out mild and increased in intensity with each mistake. The participants were told that the shocks were real, and the learner’s responses indicated that the shocks were becoming increasingly painful.

The results of the Milgram experiments showed that a high percentage of participants (65-85%) obeyed the authority figure and continued to administer the shocks, even when the learner was screaming in pain. The results were seen as evidence of the power of obedience to authority, and the studies have been widely cited in discussions of obedience, conformity, and the potential for ordinary people to commit acts of evil (Blass, et al., 1999).

The Milgram experiments have been both praised and criticized for their methodology and ethics. While they provide valuable insights into the power of obedience to authority, some argue that the studies were unethical because they exposed participants to psychological stress and trauma.

Despite the ethical concerns, the Milgram experiments remain an important part of the psychological literature and continue to be studied and discussed in contemporary discussions of obedience and the psychology of power.

Stanford prison experiment:

The Stanford Prison Experiment was a psychological study conducted by psychologist Philip Zimbardo in 1971 to examine the effects of perceived power and institutional roles on human behaviour. The study was designed to simulate a prison environment, with college students randomly assigned to play the role of either prisoner or guard. In brief, Zimbardo and his colleagues (1973) wanted to know if the cruelty observed among guards in American jails was due to the guards’ sadistic personalities (i.e., dispositional) or had more to do with the prison environment (i.e., situational).

The results of the study were striking and revealed that the participants quickly took on their assigned roles, with the guards becoming increasingly abusive and the prisoners becoming passive and submissive. The situation escalated quickly, leading to serious abuse and mistreatment of the prisoners by the guards.

The study was intended to last two weeks but was terminated after only six days due to the extreme and unethical behaviour of the participants. The results of the study showed that people can become deeply influenced by the social roles they are assigned and can quickly adopt the attitudes and behaviours associated with those roles.

The Stanford Prison Experiment has had a significant impact on the field of social psychology and has been widely cited in discussions of the power of situational influences on behaviour. The study also raises important ethical questions about the responsibility of researchers and the treatment of human subjects in psychological studies. Despite its ethical controversies, the Stanford Prison Experiment remains an important and influential study in the field of psychology.

The experiment highlighted how people effortlessly adhere to the social roles they are expected to perform, especially when the positions are as highly stereotyped as those of prison guards. Because the guards were given authority, they began to act in ways they would not normally act in their everyday life.

Physiological Arousal Concepts

In the context of aggression, depictions in media and real-world experiences can have significant physiological effects such as increased heart rate and blood pressure. This increased state of arousal can have a negative impact on cognitive functions; reducing their ability to regulate aggressive behaviours, and subsequently increasing the probability of the individual becoming overtly aggressive (Tyson, 1998).

Strong evidence suggests that aggression or violence is more likely to occur during hot weather (Anderson, 1989).

Overcrowding in both animal models and human studies have resulted in increased aggression (Calhoun, 1962). Higher population densities lead to higher levels of violence.

Men in general show more aggressive behaviours than women, especially for physical violence. Women respond with higher levels of guilt and anxiety following aggressive acts.

The Influence of Television and other Media

The impact of exposure to violence and aggression in the media has been well investigated, demonstrating a moderate correlation with aggressive tendencies (Bushman & Huesmann, 2006) alongside impaired development within the prefrontal cortex (Hummer, 2015). Regarding violent video games specifically, there are indications that exposure can cause desensitization to real-life violence (Carnagey, et al., 2007), but whether this results in increased aggressive behaviour remains a highly contentious topic. There’s strong evidence to support concerns in younger children (Coker, et al., 2015), and since imitation is most common in younger children (Bussey & Perry, 1976) and aggressive behaviours are typically imitated when rewarded  (Bandura, 1997) this makes sense in the context of video games and recent correlations between anger and approach motivation (Veenstra, et al., 2018). The impact on adolescents and adults, however, is controversial, with studies both supporting and rejecting the hypothesis (Przybylski & Weinstein, 2019) (Ferguson, et al., 2015) (Lam, et al., 2013). Considering the scale and development of individual factors as we mature, this is entirely plausible.

A 2003 longitudinal follow-up study showed childhood exposure to media violence predicted early adult aggressive behaviour (Huesmann et al, 2003).

In summary, children who consume violent media and more prone to exhibiting violent behaviour and demonstrate a higher acceptance of aggressiveness. Also children exposed to either violent or non-violent video games, when subsequently exposed to violent media show increased aggressive behaviour (Huesmann & Laramie, 2006).

Family and Social Backgrounds of Aggressive Individuals

An individual’s upbringing and home life can have a significant impact on aggressive tendencies, with positive relationships, normative family constructs, and parental opposition to fighting having a positive impact in reducing aggressive behaviours – with the latter being the most crucial (Orphinas, et al., 1999). 

Although we have discussed these factors in isolation, there is no factor which is singularly accountable for the development of aggressive tendencies. There is however evidence to support the compounding of multiple risk factors; exposure to family conflict alongside exposure to violence in the media has been found to correlate with increased aggressive behaviours (Fikkers, et al., 2013), with similar impacts found within peer groups – depending on whether they approve or respond with criticism (Bullo & Schulz, 2022).

Parental factors associated with the development of aggression:

• Inconsistent disciplinary procedures
• Paternal absence
• Lack of supervision
• Harsh punishment
• Family history of antisocial behaviour

There is a strong association between lower socio-economic status and conduct problems. Observational behavioural learning in children in the context of violence is more likely to be observed in neighbourhoods of lower socio-economic status.

Traits associated with higher levels of aggressive behaviour:

• Trait anger
• Type A personality
• Narcissism
• Impulsivity

Personality Disorders and Aggression

Personality disorders are mental health conditions characterized by patterns of thoughts, behaviours, and emotions that are rigid, and inflexible, and interfere with an individual’s ability to function in daily life. There is evidence to suggest that some personality disorders can be associated with an increased risk of aggression.

For example, individuals with antisocial personality disorder (also known as sociopathy or psychopathy) have a higher risk of engaging in violent and aggressive behaviour. These individuals often lack empathy, have difficulty following social norms and rules, and are prone to impulsive and criminal behaviour.

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is another personality disorder that has been linked to increased aggression. People with BPD often experience intense and unstable emotions, as well as feelings of abandonment and fear of abandonment. This can lead to impulsive and erratic behaviour, including physical aggression.

It is important to note that not all individuals with personality disorders engage in aggressive behaviour and that there are many factors that can contribute to the development of aggression, including biological, environmental, and psychological factors.

Moreover, it is also important to understand that personality disorders are treatable and that with the help of mental health professionals, individuals with personality disorders can learn to manage their symptoms and improve their overall functioning. This may include psychotherapy, medication, and other forms of treatment, as well as support from friends, family, and the community.

Personality disorder:	Aggressive traits described:
Paranoid personality disorder	High levels of rumination, a low threshold for provocation, and a heightened danger perception are connected with paranoid personality disorder and violence.
Dissocial personality disorder	There are two distinct developmental trajectories for this disorder and it is most strongly associated with violent crime.
Narcissistic personality disorder	They are sensitive to criticism and consequently can react with rage. Their lack of empathy in relationships can result in aggressive behaviours.
Psychopathic traits	Linked to violent behaviours. These people will demonstrate a lack of remorse, empathy, callousness and impulsivity following these aggressive acts.

Culture and Aggression

Culture can have a significant impact on aggression and the expression of aggressive behaviour. Cultural norms, values, and beliefs can shape an individual’s beliefs about what is acceptable behaviour and influence the way they respond to situations that may trigger aggression. For example, some cultures may have a history of resolving conflicts through aggressive means, such as physical violence. In these cultures, aggression may be seen as a legitimate means of resolving disputes, and individuals may feel more inclined to act aggressively in response to perceived threats. On the other hand, some cultures may place a higher value on peaceful conflict resolution and may discourage the use of aggression as a means of resolving disputes. In these cultures, individuals may be more likely to use alternative methods of conflict resolution, such as negotiation and compromise.

Culture can also shape the way that aggressive behaviour is perceived and responded to by others. In some cultures, aggression may be seen as a sign of strength, while in others it may be viewed as a weakness. This can influence the way that others react to an aggressive individual and may affect the likelihood of the aggressive behaviour escalating. Additionally, cultural factors such as exposure to media and exposure to violent experiences can also impact the expression of aggression. For example, exposure to violent media has been linked to increased aggression in some studies, while exposure to violence in real life has been linked to increased aggression in others.

Overall, culture plays a complex and multi-faceted role in shaping aggressive behaviour, and it is important to understand the cultural context in which aggressive behaviour occurs in order to effectively address and prevent it.

War and peace:

Research as late as 1997 suggests that during wartime societies will legitimise violence and consequently rates of violence and homicide increase once wars have occurred (Ember, 1997). War can result in increases in depression, post-traumatic stress disorder as well as substance misuse problems.

Aggression in society can be influenced by the presence of war or peace. During times of war, aggression levels can be heightened due to the increased sense of threat, competition for resources, and exposure to violence. This can lead to increased aggression at both the individual and collective levels.

In times of war, individuals may feel a greater need to defend themselves, their families, and their communities, which can lead to increased levels of aggressive behaviour. At the same time, the use of violence as a means of resolving conflict may be normalized, making it more likely that individuals will act aggressively in response to perceived threats.

In peacetime, on the other hand, levels of aggression can be lower due to a reduced sense of threat and increased stability. In peaceful societies, individuals may feel less need to act aggressively and may be more likely to use alternative means of resolving conflicts, such as negotiation and compromise.

However, it is important to note that peace does not necessarily guarantee an absence of aggression. There can still be instances of violence and aggression within peaceful societies, as well as individual differences in the expression of aggressive behaviour.

Additionally, the transition from war to peace can be a challenging period, as individuals and societies must adjust to a new reality and learn to manage their aggression in non-violent ways. During this period, it may be necessary to provide support and resources to help individuals and communities transition to a peaceful state.

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