Leadership, Social Influence, Power, and Obedience

Leadership:

The ability to guide, motivate and inspire others to achieve a common goal or vision (Daft, 2014).

• Involves setting direction, making decisions, and providing support and resources to help others achieve success.
• Good leaders are able to create a sense of purpose and direction as well as communicate their vision and expectations effectively.
• Leadership can be exercised in various settings, including businesses, non-profit organizations, and political contexts.

Social influence:

The process by which an individual’s thoughts, feelings, or behaviour are affected by the presence or actions of others (Rashotte, 2007).

• Can be positive or negative, and can be exerted through direct or indirect means.
• Examples include conformity, persuasion, and peer pressure.

Power:

The ability to influence the actions, decisions, and outcomes of others (Kotter, 2010).

• Can be exercised in various ways, including through the use of authority, coercion, or manipulation.
• Can be derived from various sources, including personal characteristics, social status, or access to resources.

Obedience:

The willingness to comply with the requests or orders of an authority figure (Hibou, 2011).

• Can be motivated by a desire to avoid punishment or to gain rewards, or by a belief in the authority of the figure.
• Can be influenced by social norms, cultural values, and personal relationships.

Types of Social Power

Type of power:	Summary:
Legitimate power:	Derived from a position of leadership or formal authority, such as a parent, teacher, or manager(Fiske and Berdahl, 2007).
Coercive power:	Derived from the use of force or threats, such as physical intimidation or punishment.
Reward power:	Derived from the ability to offer incentives or rewards, such as praise, recognition, or material benefits.
Expert power:	Derived from specialized knowledge or skills, such as technical expertise or professional credentials.
Reference power:	Derived from the ability to influence others through the use of social proof or the endorsement of others, such as celebrities or influencers.

Influence Operating in Small and Large Groups or Crowds

The influence of individuals within groups or crowds can vary depending on the size and type of group. In general, the influence of individuals can be affected by factors such as group dynamics, leadership, social norms, and the presence of a common goal.

Small groups, such as a close-knit team or a family, tend to have a more intimate and personal dynamic. In these groups, individuals may be more likely to have a strong influence on one another, as they have established relationships and a shared history. In small groups, individuals can also be more easily held accountable for their actions and decisions, which can lead to a greater sense of responsibility and a higher degree of influence.

In large groups or crowds, the influence of individual actors can be greatly diminished. In these contexts, individuals may feel anonymous and less accountable for their actions and may be more likely to conform to the actions of the larger group. This can lead to the phenomenon of “herding behaviour,” where individuals act in a similar manner to those around them, even if their own opinions or beliefs differ.

The size and type of group can also influence the level of influence that leaders or charismatic individuals may have. In small groups, leaders may have a strong influence on group decisions and behaviour, while in large groups, they may have to work harder to maintain their influence and control over the group. In crowds, the presence of a charismatic leader or powerful figure can often lead to increased influence and compliance, but the influence of such individuals may also be more temporary or situational.

Conformity:

Conformity is a tendency to align one’s behaviour with the expectations or norms of a group.

Polarization:

Polarization: the tendency for groups to become more extreme in their views or attitudes over time.

Groupthink:

Groupthink: the tendency for group members to prioritize agreement and harmony over critical thinking or dissent (Janis, 2008).

Groupthink refers to the phenomenon where individuals in a group, driven by a desire for unanimity and conformity, make irrational or suboptimal decisions. Groupthink can lead to poor problem-solving and decision-making, as well as a lack of creativity and innovation.

There are a number of factors that can increase or decrease the risk of groupthink:

Factor increasing groupthink:	Description:
Group cohesiveness	A high degree of group cohesiveness, or the feeling of close relationships and loyalty among group members, can increase the risk of groupthink, as individuals may be more likely to conform to the opinions of others to maintain group harmony.
Insulated decision-making	When a group is isolated from outside information or dissenting opinions, the risk of groupthink can increase, as individuals may not be exposed to alternative viewpoints or new ideas.
Direct pressure to conform	When a group leader or other influential member exerts direct pressure on group members to conform to a particular viewpoint, the risk of groupthink can increase.
Unquestioning acceptance of group norms	When group members blindly accept group norms and values without questioning them, the risk of groupthink can increase, as individuals may be less likely to critically evaluate group decisions.

Factor decreasing groupthink:	Description:
Diversity of opinions	Encouraging diversity of opinions and perspectives within a group can decrease the risk of groupthink, as individuals are exposed to a range of ideas and can engage in constructive debate.
Open and critical discussion	Encouraging open and critical discussion within a group can decrease the risk of groupthink, as individuals are encouraged to express their opinions and ideas and to challenge the views of others.
Independent evaluation	Encouraging group members to independently evaluate and make decisions can decrease the risk of groupthink, as individuals are less likely to rely on the opinions of others and more likely to think for themselves.
Consideration of outside information	Encouraging the consideration of outside information and expert opinions can decrease the risk of groupthink, as individuals are exposed to a wider range of viewpoints and can make more informed decisions.

Risky-shift phenomenon:

The risky-shift phenomenon is a social psychological phenomenon that refers to the tendency of groups to make decisions that are riskier than the decisions that individual members of the group would make on their own. This phenomenon occurs because, in a group setting, individuals are more likely to adopt a more extreme position than they would individually, and the influence of more extreme members of the group can shift the overall risk level of the group.

The risky-shift phenomenon is often observed in group decision-making contexts, such as political debates, business meetings, or jury deliberation. It can occur when group members conform to the opinions of others, engage in social comparison, or become more confident in their opinions as a result of group discussion.

The phenomenon is thought to be due to a number of factors, including social influence, group polarization, and the “diffusion of responsibility” effect, where individuals feel less personally responsible for the consequences of a decision when they are part of a group.

It’s important to be aware of the potential for the risky-shift phenomenon in group decision-making contexts, as it can lead to decisions that are riskier than what individual members would have preferred. Strategies for mitigating the effects of the risky-shift phenomenon include encouraging diversity of opinions, promoting open and critical discussion, and providing group members with information about the risks and benefits of different options.

Deindividuation:

Deindividuation: the tendency for individuals to lose their sense of personal responsibility and behave in ways that are atypical for them when part of a large, anonymous crowd.

Communicative Control in Relationships

Communicative control is the ability to influence or regulate the communication of others in a relationship (Eğeci and Gençöz, 2006). It can take many forms, such as through the use of nonverbal cues, verbal statements, or the manipulation of information.

In healthy relationships, communicative control is often used to facilitate mutual understanding, resolve conflicts, and maintain balance and equality in the relationship. However, in unhealthy or abusive relationships, communicative control can be used as a tool to manipulate, dominate, or control the other person.

Examples of communicative control in relationships include:

• Interrupting or talking over the other person to dominate the conversation
• Using non-verbal cues, such as eye-rolling or dismissive body language, to convey disapproval or disinterest
• Withholding information or lying to manipulate the other person’s beliefs or actions
• Using criticism, guilt, or shame to manipulate the other person’s behaviour.

References:

(1) Daft, R.L. and Lane, P.L. (2015). Leadership. Stamford Cengage Learning.

(2) Eğeci, İ.S. and Gençöz, T. (2006). Factors Associated with Relationship Satisfaction: Importance of Communication Skills. Contemporary Family Therapy, 28(3), pp.383–391. doi:10.1007/s10591-006-9010-2.

(3) Hibou, B. 2011. The force of obedience, Polity.

(4) Janis, I. L. (2007). Groupthink. In R. P. Vecchio, R. P. Vecchio (Eds.) , Leadership: Understanding the dynamics of power and influence in organizations (2nd ed.) (pp. 157-169). Notre Dame, IN US: University of Notre Dame Press.

(5) Kotter, J. P. 2010. Power and influence, Simon and Schuster.

(6) Rashotte, L. (2007). Social Influence. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. [online] doi:10.1002/9781405165518.wbeoss154.