1.1.7 Motivation and Maslow

1.1.7 Motivation and Maslow

Motivation: Needs and Drives

Motivation is considered one of the most important competencies by which human behaviour is determined. It is however dependent on intrinsic drives and needs which can be physical or objective. The examples of water and food represent physical needs while self-esteem represents examples of psychological or subjective needs (Navy, 2020). They influence how a person behaves and are hence considered motivational to behaviour. Noteworthy is that the needs are ranked in a hierarchy as explained by Abraham Maslow who categorized needs into basic and secondary or the higher order ones leading to self-actualization (Navy, 2020). Nevertheless, for the need to trigger action, there are internal drives that are considered intrinsic forces by which humans are enticed to pursue a need (Navy, 2020). A drive can be illustrated through the state of mind whereupon registering hunger, one is motivated to take the action of cooking or buying food to satisfy the need of hunger. 

Drive reduction theory:

Drive-reduction theory holds that the basic reason for all human behaviour is to diminish ‘drives.’ A ‘drive’ is a state of arousal or pain caused by physiological or biological requirements such as hunger, thirst, or the desire for warmth.

Primary drives provide the reinforcement required for basic survival. The hypothalamus controls the homeostatic systems. Effectors result in change and sensors detect this change.

Hunger is a primary drive:

Secondary drives support primary drives. A clear difference from the primary drives is that they are not essential to survival. Social behaviours are associated with the nano peptide hormones vasopressin and oxytocin.

Arousal theory:

According to the arousal theory of motivation, individuals are driven to engage in activities or situations that maintain or raise their degree of arousal. Increased activity in the dopaminergic mesolimbic system is associated with increased arousal.

Yerkes and Dodson proposed the hypothesis in 1908, after discovering an inverted-U relationship between task difficulty and performance:

Extrinsic Theories (Based on Primary and Secondary Drive Reduction) and Homeostasis

According to extrinsic theories, as represented by the drive reduction theory, human behaviours are motivated by homeostasis. It is the desire to achieve a state of physical and mental equilibrium under the core premise that motivation is triggered by biological needs (Legault, 2020). Competition for trophies and completing work for monetary rewards are examples of extrinsic rewards which explain human behaviour. The need-based theory illustrated by Abraham Maslow equally supports the notion of homeostatic forces triggering observable behaviour by human agents (Legault, 2020). From cognitive theories, inconsistencies and contradictions in cognitions by a person such as represented by beliefs and attitudes are equal factors that create a disequilibrium hence triggering behaviour as one pursues the state of mental and physical equilibrium. Therefore, based on primary and secondary drive reduction, extrinsic theories play a crucial role in explaining the motivation for human behaviour and actions.

Extrinsic motivation:

  • Behaviours are driven by external benefits is the main hypothesis of extrinsic theories.
  • According to operant conditioning, behaviours are reinforced if they result in an external reward or the avoidance of punishment.
  • The incentive theory of motivation proposes people are motivated by a desire for rewards and reinforcement while avoiding activities that may result in punishment. Working for a wage is an example.  

Hypothalamic Systems and Satiety

The sensation of fullness and satisfaction in a person’s mind comes from what is regarded as stimulation. The hypothalamus in the human brain is considered to be the coordination centre of human actions (Talakoub, et al., 2017). It has the primary responsibility of causing one to realize what is regarded as homeostasis or the stable state. Located in the hypothalamus is the satiety centre which is responsible for registering the feeling of satisfaction. It stimulates the production of hormones by which body processes are triggered for the realization of a state of bodily balance and the feeling of satisfaction (Talakoub, et al., 2017). For example, through pituitary hormones, the body temperature and heart rate are regulated. Therefore, the hypothalamic system plays an important role via the satiety centre to stimulate and produce the feeling and sensation of satisfaction. It is therefore credited for influencing human behaviour and actions. 

Intrinsic Theories, Curiosity, and Optimum Levels of Arousal

When considering intrinsic motivation, curiosity or inquisitiveness, and eagerness to learn what does not have a direct concern to a person feature dominantly. Curiosity is hence featured as a strong intrinsic motivation by which spontaneous exploration and active learning are inspired (Gopalan, et al., 2017). Through intrinsic theories, autonomy, purpose, and mastery are featured by which human behaviour can be explained. Based on the needs and drives, intrinsic motivation to pursue healthy biological necessities such as food and sex are explained. In past studies, curiosity plays a critical role in explaining the recorded levels of arousal (Gopalan, et al., 2017). With higher levels of curiosity, heightened levels of satisfaction are realised through the exploratory behaviours that result. Therefore, from the intrinsic theories of human behaviour, human behaviour which is not triggered by the realisation of external rewards and pressures is explained. Curiosity is featured dominantly in the explainer as it also influences the levels of arousal recorded by a person. 

Intrinsic motivation:

  • Intrinsic theories suggest motivation may be innate, as opposed to acquired.
  • Curiosity is related to our innate practice of seeking out new experiences and discovering new information. This contributes to our development and understanding.

Limitations of Approach and Attempts to Integrate

As a complex phenomenon, motivation attracts both intrinsic and extrinsic explanations. It is particularly complicated when considering integration as a phenomenon of mental processes. Integration regards positive psychological development leading to maturity in habits and behaviour (Shaver, Hazan & Bradshaw, 2021). Often, the discourse focuses on how a person overcomes and outlives past behaviours and positively embraces new ones. When considering the motivations that influence behavioural integration both extrinsic and intrinsic factors are featured (Shaver, Hazan & Bradshaw, 2021). They also inform the challenges and limitations that are encountered in the processes. It however becomes challenging to determine the outcome of attempts to integrate due to the lack of what is regarded as zero point or the reference position (Shaver, Hazan & Bradshaw, 2021). The success or failure of attempts to integrate hence takes a high regard for subjectivity. 

Cognitive Consistency and the Need for Achievement (nAch)

The need for achievement is defined as a person’s desire to make significant accomplishments such as taking control and mastering skills. Illustrations of activities that people do to realise the desire are to pursue intense and often prolonged routines of activities (Hilkenmeier, 2018). An internal drive or motivation is considered to be a determining force for the need for achievement. However in other instances, external forces such as the social expectation for one to win causes a person to realise a higher need for achievement. For a pleasant psychological state to be realised, congruency between the need for achievement and cognitive consistency is required (Hilkenmeier, 2018). By definition, cognitive consistency regards the concept that one’s preferences in thoughts, attitudes, opinions, and beliefs are congruent or well-aligned without contradiction. With the inconsistency of incongruence, an unpleasant psychological state and tension ensue. 

McClelland who proposed the ‘need for achievement’ theory suggested behaviour could be drawn down to three social objectives:

  • Need for achievement (nAch): mastery and control of skills in comparison to peers. The satisfaction gained through achievement and competition.
  • Need for affiliation (nAf): maintaining effective relationships with people. Aim for a sense of belonging.
  • Need for power (nP): exerting an impact on others via leadership roles and personal status.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

The Maslow hierarchy of needs is a psychological framework for understanding human needs and how they rate in preference which was advanced by the American psychologist Abraham Maslow. Human innate curiosity and desires were also incorporated into the Maslow Hierarchy of Needs framework to advance the discourse of how human behaviours and actions are occasioned (Fallatah & Syed, 2018). The thoughts of the psychologist noted how physiological needs as represented by food and clothing, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualisation play unique roles in informing actions and behaviours by people. A hierarchical order was advanced where Maslow notes that the physiological needs rank basic at the bottom of the needs whereas self-actualisation comes at the top of the pyramid (Fallatah & Syed, 2018). The implication is that before pursuing self-actualisation, a person would be more concerned with the bottom or basic needs as represented by food. 

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs states the following five needs are to be obtained in hierarchical order:

References:

(1) Fallatah, R. H. M., & Syed, J. (2018). A critical review of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Employee Motivation in Saudi Arabia, 19-59.

(2) Gopalan, V., Bakar, J. A. A., Zulkifli, A. N., Alwi, A., & Mat, R. C. (2017, October). A review of the motivation theories in learning. In AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol. 1891, No. 1, p. 020043). AIP Publishing LLC.

(3) Hilkenmeier, F. (2018). The impact of motive disposition on group performance. Cogent Psychology, 5(1), 1507123.

(4) Legault, L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences, 2416-2419.

(5) Navy, S. L. (2020). Theory of human motivation—Abraham Maslow. In Science Education in Theory and Practice (pp. 17-28). Springer, Cham.

(6) Shaver, P. R., Hazan, C., & Bradshaw, D. (2021). The integration of three behavioral systems. Attachment Theory and Research: A Reader, 74.

(7) Talakoub, O., Paiva, R. R., Milosevic, M., Hoexter, M. Q., Franco, R., Alho, E., … & Hamani, C. (2017). Lateral hypothalamic activity indicates hunger and satiety states in humans. Annals of clinical and translational neurology, 4(12), 897-901.